The Impact of Chaeron and Others
Key leaders from the Athenian side, including Chaeron and Thibrachus, perished in battle. Their deaths incurred a grave toll and were marked by entombments in a public space known as Ceramicus.
Tatius: Space
Intimacy and Resistance
The narrator conveys an intimate scene marked by her physical and emotional conflict, as she surrenders to the moment despite the tumultuous nature of their relationship. This suggests that love is often improvised, underlining its spontaneous power that transcends physical space and preparation.
Heidegger: Space
Understanding 'Being-in'
A common interpretation of 'being in' relates to the notion of being within some context, akin to how water exists within a glass.
Spatial Relationships: This discusses how entities are located within spatial dimensions, exemplified by a bench in a classroom, which leads to the concept of 'world-space' that frames Dasein's experience within its environment.
However, 'Being-in' extends beyond mere spatial presence; it encapsulates an existential condition unique to Dasein, inclusive of its psychological and emotional dimensions that inform how it relates to the environment.
The Significance of Space
Dasein's spatiality must be understood through its active involvement, concentrating on concepts like 'de-severance' (the act of joining or reconnecting with entities) and 'directionality' (the orientation towards certain meanings or goals in existence). The spatial nature of the environment is not merely a backdrop; instead, it dynamically interacts with Dasein's existential attributes, influencing experience and identity.
Clearing and Disclosedness
Disclosedness of Dasein's Being signifies that it is cleared of obstructions, allowing for authentic insight and awareness of the world.
Dasein must understand the ‘clearing’ as intrinsic to its existence, a space where potential understanding can emerge.
Only authentic understanding allows for a meaningful perception of presence-at-hand, enabling Dasein to navigate its reality with clarity and intention.
The Temporal Interpretation of Everyday Dasein
Key Structures Constituting Disclosedness
Understanding, State-of-Mind, Falling, and Discourse: Temporal interpretations arise from these phenomena, informing how Dasein’s Being-in-the-world is temporally defined. Each component plays a crucial role in how Dasein perceives and interacts within its temporal spaces, shaping its existential narrative.
Circumspective Concern: Dasein’s engagement with its environment, guided by temporality, shifts from mere observation to a more experiential understanding. This phenomenon illustrates how time influences decision-making and the experience of being in a world that is not static.
Foundation of Spatiality: Temporal structures shape how Dasein interacts spatially within its world, fundamentally influencing its mode of existence. Space and time are intertwined in a way that affects Dasein’s perception of boundaries, freedom, and attachment to places.
Deleuze & Guattari: Space
In modern state societies, segmentarity is also apparent but tends to be more rigid. The relationship between segmentarity and centralization is significant; the state enforces its distinct segmentarity while classical biological oppositions serve as metaphors to contrast segmentarity and centralization. Within modern segmentarities, we can identify characteristics of rigid versus supple segmentarity. Rigid segmentarity features independent binary oppositions such as social classes, often propelled by technology, resulting in circular segmentarity forming concentric hierarchies, while linear segmentarity becomes standardized, homogenizing space into rigid structures that inhibit organic mobility. Conversely, supple segmentarity coexists with rigid segmentarity, allowing for fluid overlaps and distinctions of individual identities within collective frameworks, where both forms intertwine and affect one another amid complex societal dynamics.
The Refrain
The refrain embodies the ability to create a center amidst chaos, functioning as a structure that organizes space against chaos and serves as protective boundaries of order in its presence. A poignant example of this is a child who uses singing as a coping mechanism in dark, chaotic environments. This phenomenon highlights transitions that occur when the circle of order opens, where forces of the future become integrated into the refrain, indicating improvisation and exploration beyond established boundaries. The refrain thus encompasses three vital aspects: chaos, organization, and an escape towards potential. Its historical roots in territory and culture can be observed through bird songs that mark territory, as well as various musical structures serving analogous territorial functions. Musically, the relation between sound (the refrain) and space (territory) is critical, with the refrain acting as a bridge between chaos and structured expression.
Milieus and Rhythms
The concept of milieu refers to a coding of space-time through repeated components, creating a relationship between living beings and their environments. Every living being possesses an exterior environment filled with material resources, an interior composition made up of elements, and an intermediary connecting layer characterized by membranes and limits. Rhythm emerges as a reaction to chaos; it manipulates intervals and relations rather than aligning solely with regularity. Through rhythm, communication between different milieus fosters the formation of a cohesive society.
The War Machine's Position
The war machine exists in the intermediary space between the two poles, facilitating transitions between different forms of sovereignty. Examples include the magic sovereign who possesses binding powers contrasted with the king who utilizes legal frameworks for resolving conflicts. Myths, such as the Horatius Codes and Mucius Scaevola, illustrate this conflict and explore themes of war and the nature of capture.
The Smooth and the Striated
Concepts of Space
The distinction between smooth space and striated space plays a crucial role in understanding the dynamics of spatial organization. Smooth space is characterized by its nomadic, flexible, open, and constantly changing nature. In contrast, striated space is sedentary, rigid, organized, and defined by fixed boundaries. These spaces often exist in complex mixtures, where one can transform into another; for example, when organizing a desert (smooth), layers of striation are added.
The Relationship Between Smooth and Striated Spaces
In examining smooth and striated spaces, we find a dichotomy between de jure (theoretical) and de facto (practical) distinctions. While theory often separates the two, real-world observations reveal their mixed realities. Communication—or the lack thereof—between these spaces further highlights their intrinsic differences.
Models of Space
Several models illustrate the characteristics of smooth and striated spaces. The technological model emphasizes fabric characteristics, with two types of elements: mobile and fixed. This model parallels weaving where ‘warp’ represents fixed elements and ‘woof’ reflects mobility. Felt represents smooth space as it has an unlimited and open structure, while fabric denotes closed, defined spaces. The musical model by Pierre Boulez suggests that smooth space is occupied without counting, whereas striated space involves counting and organization, particularly in the distribution of frequencies, where types of breaks influence spatial organization. The maritime model examines the degree of striation where points and lines subordinate to trajectories of smooth spaces, as seen in sea navigation, which entails initial structuring demands based on latitudes and navigational techniques.
The Nature of Space
Perception varies in smooth and striated spaces. Smooth space is filled by events, affects, and forces and is primarily perception-driven, while striated space relates to visual properties, being structured by metrics and measurements. In terms of spatial models and geometry, Riemannian spaces introduce a multiplicity that is nonmetric and fluid. This leads to the distinction between metric, which refers to defined spaces with consistent dimensions, and nonmetric, which pertains to open, varying dimensions without set measures.
Dynamics of Work and Labor
The dynamics of work and labor also play a significant role. In the context of work as a model of striation, labor is organized within the state apparatus, defining space-time for the functionality of states and societies. Surplus labor arises only within contexts of striation and surplus production. Conversely, smooth spaces represent realms of non-work, illustrating free actions devoid of the need for labor or surplus, exemplified by societies displaying continuous variation.
Artistic Expressions
Art also reflects these concepts. In nomadic art, a distinction emerges between haptic and optical art; the former relates to close-range vision that aligns with smooth space, while the latter concerns long-distance perception that corresponds with striated space. Movement and representation are vital in understanding space, especially through abstract lines.
Final Thoughts
In conclusion, smooth and striated spaces should not be viewed as static entities. Life constantly alternates between smooth spaces and striated spaces based on varying needs and conditions.
Art and science serve as vital arenas for exploring societal norms and dismantling traditional representations of desire. They enable reflective critique and reinterpretation of societal constructs. Instead of merely reinforcing established structures, art emerges as a space where revolutionary potentials can be examined, articulated, and critiqued, facilitating a broader understanding of human experience and aspiration.
Nomadic thought emphasizes the importance of movement, transformation, and the necessity of creating spaces for fluid identities that defy traditional structures of power and dominance.
Both games illustrate contrasting paradigms:
Chess embodies striated space with fixed entities aiming for dominance.
Go operates within smooth space, emphasizing continuous movement and the dynamic interplay of strategies.
Space, Movement, and Territory
The nature of space occupied by nomadic communities showcases distinct characteristics:
Sedentary Space: Often striated, comprising walls, enclosures, and regulated interactions, leading to a structured and ordered social fabric.
Nomadic Space: Characterized as smooth, it allows for fluidity and adaptability in response to environmental changes, such as terrain shifts due to climate change or the encroachment of deserts.
Distinction between Speed and Movement
Speed: Represented as an intensive quality where a particular state of being fills a given space - often linked to the availability of resources or manpower.
Originating as a nomadic invention, the war machine flourishes in smooth spaces that are essential for sustaining its existence. The foundational goal is to maintain and control these spaces as opposed to engaging in outright warfare.
Thucydides: War
Thucydides (c. 460–395 BC) was a Greek historian known for his works on the history of the Peloponnesian War. His writings have been fundamental in shaping historical analysis.
Key Contents
The Complete Works of Thucydides are available in various translations and formats. Notable works include The History of the Peloponnesian War and Xenophon’s Hellenica, often presented in Greek text alongside English translations, and accompanied by biographies and introductions penned by noted scholars.
The History of the Peloponnesian War
This major work is characterized by several key themes and structured approaches. Thucydides aimed for an objective history, utilizing his experience as a general to maintain an unbiased, scientific perspective. The events are categorized chronologically, majorly focusing on military campaigns during summer and winter seasons. His innovative techniques included extensive use of direct speeches from significant figures, enriching the narrative depth, with notable examples like Pericles' funeral oration, known for its rhetorical power.
The first book of The History of the Peloponnesian War explores early Greek history and delves into the causes of the conflict, particularly highlighting the growth of Athenian power that alarmed Sparta. Athenian expansion is detailed through political speeches that defended imperial actions, contrasting with Sparta's more conservative governance approach.
Historical Influence
Thucydides’ methodological approach laid the groundwork for modern historical writing, differing markedly from the narrative style of Herodotus. His insights have shaped both ancient and contemporary historians’ understanding of power, war, and human behavior.
The Structure of Thucydides' Work
The History of the Peloponnesian War is divided into eight books that chronologically follow the events and implications of the war. Book I outlines the war's causes and initial proceedings, followed by Books II to VIII, which detail the chronological events and militaristic actions of Athenian and Spartan forces. Key events include the Peloponnesian War conflicts and notable military strategies, such as the catastrophic Sicilian Expedition.
Major Events and Figures
Key figures featured include Pericles, the Athenian leader who provided a vision of democracy intertwined with military confidence, and Alcibiades, a prominent general whose shifting alliances impacted the war's progression.
Conclusions
The enduring impact of The History of the Peloponnesian War lies in its value as a pivotal document for understanding Ancient Greece, offering timeless reflections on political strategy, ethics, and the complexities of human nature.
The Athenian Response to Challenges
Conflict with Lacedaemonians
As tensions escalated, the Athenians, with their Corinthian allies, faced the Lacedaemonians on multiple fronts.
Perspectives on War
Pericles, a leading figure among the Athenians, advised against yielding to Peloponnesian commands regarding territory and trade. He emphasized that conceding minor points would only lead to further demands. Arguing for war, Pericles highlighted the strength of the Athenian navy and urged readiness for the inevitable conflict.
The War Develops
Key Battles
The invasion of Plataea was notable for its surprising military actions, while urban unrest surged within Athenian territories, prompting officers to respond decisively.
The Plague in Athens
As the war progressed, a devastating plague struck Athens, leading to severe population losses and negatively impacting morale among the citizens.
Conclusion: Fragile Peace and Continuing Conflict
Ultimately, the mistrust resulting from previous treaties fostered ongoing conflicts. New alliances formed based on inter-city politics, and hostilities resumed shortly after peace negotiations, with significant battles continuing until the end of the war.
Analysis of War Outcomes
The reflection on military strategy provides an intricate depiction of warfare, highlighting the struggle for tactical control and diplomatic maneuvering amidst chaos. The chaotic political landscape within Sicily complicated Athenian military objectives, which illustrated the complexities of empire management. Ongoing military failures reinforced the notion that the Athenian expedition was not only a tactical mistake but an overextension of resources amidst underestimated local opposition.
Historical Context of the Peloponnesian War
Evacuation of Fortifications at Epidaurus
Troops were commanded to evacuate the fortifications raised at Epidaurus. Demosthenes was sent to retrieve the garrison; under the pretext of a gymnastic contest, he tricked them into exiting so he could shut the gates behind them.
Alliance Changes
The Mantineans held out for some time after the Argives deserted their alliance but ultimately surrendered to the Lacedaemonians. The Lacedaemonians, alongside the Argives, initiated a joint expedition that established oligarchical governments at Sicyon and Argos. This military success coincided with the close of winter and the end of the 14th year of the war.
Conclusion: The Aftermath of the War
The turmoil experienced in Athens illustrated the instability that followed their defeat, particularly in the struggle for control among various factions. This defeat culminated in a tenuous peace settlement with the Lacedaemonians, marking a return shift towards oligarchy before democracy was attempted once more. These events ultimately highlighted the volatility of Athenian politics and society during this tumultuous historical period.
The Peloponnesian War: Key Events and Figures
Introduction to the Context of the Peloponnesian War
The narrative focuses on the latter years of the Peloponnesian War, particularly the turmoil faced by Athens. Key figures include Alcibiades, Tissaphernes, and various Athenian generals and political factions, who played significant roles in this period.
Arrival of Rhodian Exiles
Rhodians expelled by Athenian democrats brought warnings of Athenian expansion to the Lacedaemonians. In response, they equipped a fleet of eight vessels under the command of Ecdicus to assist the Rhodians.
Diphridas's Mission
Diphridas was tasked with gathering Thibron's survivors in Asia and waging war against Struthas. He successfully captured Tigranes and his wife, with the ransom paid for Tigranes being sufficient to pay Diphridas's mercenaries, marking a success in his military endeavors.
Diplomatic Maneuvers in Athens
Following the conflict, an assembly in Athens deliberated the implications of the war on their standing among Hellenic states, raising questions about alliances. The debates highlighted deep divisions regarding how to respond to the aggressions faced from both Thebes and Sparta, serving as a vivid reminder of prior grievances.
Escalation to War
The situation escalated towards war due to a diplomatic breakdown, with continued accusations of aggressive actions pushing both sides closer to conflict. Diplomatic efforts were further undermined by mutual distrust and previous grievances. During this period, King Perdiccas of Macedon exerted influence on both the Athenian and Corinthian sides, aiming to benefit from the regional instability.
The Provocation of the Peloponnesian War
Accusations of treaty violations became a critical point of contention, leading both powers to mobilize for war, which ultimately triggered the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War.
Conclusion
This struggle symbolizes larger themes of power, honor, and the intricate nature of alliances in Classical Greece. Thucydides’ account offers insight into the complexities of human motives in warfare and highlights turning points in history shaped by diplomacy and conflict.
Introduction
Thucydides chronicles the conflicts between Athens and the Peloponnesians, establishing the Peloponnesian War as a pivotal point in Greek history.
Outlook for War
As propaganda and rhetoric from both sides ramp up, citizens are prepared for imminent conflict. Civic responsibility is invoked across allied cities, reinforcing communal commitment to Athenian independence.
Conclusion and War Declaration
The unyielding stance of the Athenians ultimately leads to open warfare, with the Lacedaemonians reacting similarly. The immediate reasons for warfare coalesce into a larger narrative of power dynamics and autonomy among Greek city-states.
Immediate Causes of War
The immediate causes of war include several pivotal incidents. First, Corcyra's conflict with Corinth draws Athenian interest, leading Athenians to support Corcyra against Corinth. Additionally, the Potidaea incident occurs when Potidaea, allied with the Athenians, faces pressure to submit to Corinthian influence, escalating local tensions. Furthermore, the Megarian decree—an Athenian exclusion of Megara from markets—aggravates relations, seen as a blockade against allies.
Lacedaemonian Preparations for War
In the wake of increasing tensions, the Lacedaemonians begin military preparations. They send ambassadors to Athens to demand the retraction of Athenian decrees against their allies.
The Athenian Response
Pericles advises against yielding to Lacedaemonian threats, emphasizing the necessity of readiness and preparation for war. The Athenians refuse to rescind the Megarian decree, prioritizing their own interests and alliances over conciliation.
Mobilization for War
Both factions prepare militarily, with the Athenians bolstering their naval strength in anticipation of Peloponnesian aggression. By securing grain supplies and troop mobilization, Athens demonstrates its commitment to maintaining the war effort.
The Role of Leadership in Athens
Pericles’ leadership is characterized as strategic and prepared; he seeks to unify Athenian resolve. His views and advice become fundamental to Athenian strategy and engagement in the war.
Introduction to the Conflict
Tension between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians leads to open warfare, with various allies on both sides increasing hostilities. This conflict arises after a period of previous peace.
Athens and the Mytilenean Debate
The fate of Mytilene fluctuated based on political debates in Athens, with split opinions emerging on whether to impose severe punishment or extend sympathy to former allies. Key arguments featured Cleon advocating for immediate punishment to deter future transgressions, while Diodotus countered by arguing for the need to consider long-term implications and justice for the innocent. Ultimately, the political decisions during this tumultuous period illustrated the overarching themes of war, loyalty, and the moral dilemmas confronted by the Hellenic states, leading to a modified approach that favored leniency for innocents despite desires for vengeance against perceived treachery.
Shift to Other Outposts
In the aftermath of the strife in Corcyra, war efforts expand into Sicily, where both Athenians and Syracusans engage with the Locrians and other Greek factions. The measures taken by both sides to consolidate power escalate further conflicts and sow potential chaos across various fronts.
Broader Impact
Overall, the turmoil experienced in Corcyra highlights the fragility of alliances and the potential for civil conflict within warring states, fueling larger hostilities throughout Greece. This conflict serves to illustrate the shifting power dynamics among Greek city-states, as they align with or against the Peloponnesians and Athenians throughout the war.
Context of the Conflict
The events take place amidst the backdrop of the Peloponnesian War, focusing on the island of Corcyra and the actions of various Greek states. Tensions are rising, particularly between the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians, leading to armed conflict.
The Dynamics of War and Peace
The narrative reveals a complex interplay of military engagements, shifting allegiances, and the subtleties of diplomatic communications. The rapidly altering mood among citizens—both Athenian and allied—reflects a growing restlessness against Athenian rule, particularly following the successful operations undertaken by allies of Sparta.
Handling Ambassadors and Truces
Ongoing negotiations were crucial for maintaining state relations during the unfolding conflict of the Peloponnesian War. The strategic importance of resources, such as timber for shipbuilding and maintaining stronghold cities, was emphasized throughout this period.
Conclusion
The events documented illustrate the chaotic nature of warfare in classical Greece, the shifting landscapes of power, and the necessity for strong leadership amidst daunting circumstances.
Aftermath of the Expedition
The aftermath saw the execution of Nicias and Demosthenes by the Syracusans, highlighting the violent repercussions of the failed expedition. Other captured Athenian soldiers faced harsh conditions and were primarily assigned to labor. This incident marked one of the most critical losses for Athens during the Peloponnesian War, significantly altering the regional power dynamics. The defeat resulted in a considerable reduction of Athenian naval power and brought to light critical weaknesses in their military operations.
War Engagements and the Battle for Influence
A series of naval engagements ensued following Athenian withdrawals, which alternately boosted Peloponnesian morale and incited further revolts in subject states. The responses from both sides highlighted the intricate connection between territory control and naval supremacy, pivotal in dictating the course of subsequent hostilities.
Revolts and External Alliances
Dissatisfaction grew as Euboeans and Lesbians attempted to switch allegiances, highlighting their discontent with Athenian rule. Alcamenes was appointed to lead efforts to secure Euboea, while various states initiated open revolts against Athenian control due to the defeats and deteriorating economic conditions exacerbated by the ongoing war.
Preparations for War
Agis, the king of Lacedaemon, coordinated troop movements and contributions from allies aimed at enhancing their naval capabilities. The Lacedaemonians planned to construct a substantial fleet across various cities to strengthen their naval presence. Meanwhile, the Athenians fortified their positions and prepared for renewed naval construction amidst fears of revolts from their allies.
Reflections on Leadership
Thucydides, in his narrative, analyzes the impacts of leadership decisions on the direction of the war, focusing on how they shaped the Athenian responses to both internal divisions and external threats.
Final Lessons and Implications of Thucydides's Work
Thucydides’ chapters draw conclusions about democracy versus oligarchy, reflecting on the causes and consequences of decisions made during the war and providing modern interpretations of governance effectiveness.
Aftermath and Final Battles
The Four Hundred ultimately lost favor and were overthrown, which led to the establishment of the Five Thousand in an effort to stabilize Athenian governance. The war showcased cyclical violations and shifts in alliances, particularly evidenced by the changing dynamics between Alcibiades and the Athenian oligarchs.
Key Events and Figures in the Peloponnesian War
Discontent Among the Allies
The Peloponnesian War faced discontent among the allies, particularly highlighted by the demands of the Syracusan and Thurian sailors for pay from Astyochus. In response to their insistence, Astyochus threatened the sailors, which led to an attempt on his life, compelling him to escape to an altar for refuge.
Greek Response to Athenian Defeats
The defeat of Athens in Sicily stirred all of Hellas, prompting neutral states to feel compelled to join the war against Athens as they perceived an imminent victory. This ignited increased confidence among Lacedaemonian allies to fight against Athenian supremacy. Additionally, there were reports indicating a widespread readiness among Athenian subject states to revolt, fueled by long-standing grievances.
Final Lessons and Implications of Thucydides's Work
Thucydides’ chapters draw conclusions about democracy versus oligarchy, reflecting on the causes and consequences of decisions made during the war and providing modern interpretations of governance effectiveness.
Aftermath and Final Battles
The Four Hundred ultimately lost favor and were overthrown, which led to the establishment of the Five Thousand in an effort to stabilize Athenian governance. The war showcased cyclical violations and shifts in alliances, particularly evidenced by the changing dynamics between Alcibiades and the Athenian oligarchs.
Deleuze & Guattari: War
Deleuze & Guattari: War
Axiom III and Proposition IX
Correlation of Nomadic War Machine and Itinerant Metallurgy
The concepts of the nomad war machine and itinerant metallurgy are intricately linked, suggesting that the movement of peoples and the processes of metallurgy are not merely contemporaneous but are interdependent phenomena.
Nature and Purpose of War
War is often mischaracterized as being solely focused on battle. It is crucial to understand that the war machine's objectives extend beyond traditional narratives of warfare.
Central Questions
Is the battle truly the primary objective of war?
Is war itself the primary function of the war machine?
How does the State apparatus interpret and utilize the war machine?
These inquiries reveal a significant ambiguity regarding the term "object," suggesting a deeper interrelation between these concepts.
Distinctions in Warfare
Understanding the nuances between various forms of war:
Pursuit of Battle: Traditional warfare often emphasizes direct confrontations, echoing historical perspectives from military theorists like General Ferdinand Foch, who championed engagements.
Avoidance of Battle: Conversely, the war machine may prioritize reflection and strategic maneuvering over physical engagement.
This distinction blurs the lines of offensive versus defensive strategies, complicating our understanding of military engagements.
Historical Perspectives
Traditionally, warfare sought total annihilation as an end goal. However, guerrilla warfare often aims for outcomes that do not strictly involve battle, challenging established norms of military success.
The evolution of combat into movements of total war further complicates the concept of battle itself, as the rapid maneuvers are tied to guerrilla strategies that resist conventional war definitions.
Objectives of the War Machine
The objectives of the war machine are multifaceted and diverge from established war paradigms:
The annihilation of the enemy is a secondary concern; instead, the war machine often pursues raids that disrupt target environments.
Originating as a nomadic invention, the war machine flourishes in smooth spaces that are essential for sustaining its existence. The foundational goal is to maintain and control these spaces as opposed to engaging in outright warfare.
Complex Relationship with the State
When confronted with States and urban environments, the war machine transforms into an apparatus of destruction, reshaping its identity: war becomes an unavoidable necessity when clashes with State structures occur.
Historical context reveals that archaic States did not initiate wars due to the absence of war machines; they relied on other mechanisms for control, like policing and imprisonment.
Over time, external war machines have catalyzed the dissolution of archaic States, prompting critical inquiries regarding how contemporary States appropriate these war machines to consolidate their own power.
Types of Appropriation Challenges
Operational Essence: The nomadic war machine faces dilemmas concerning conquered territories: should they return to nomadism or establish firm control?
Forms of Appropriation: The divergence between professional armies and conscription, or mercenaries versus territorial warriors, reveals changing dynamics.
Means of Appropriation: Taxation, territorial control, and public works directly influence military structures, affecting how war machines are utilized.
Clausewitz’s Contribution
Carl von Clausewitz famously posited that "war is a continuation of politics by other means." However, he distinguished between two types of warfare:
Ideal Pure War: This refers to an abstract concept of absolute conflict, while
Real Wars: Actual conflicts occurring under the influence of political motivations and objectives.
This dichotomy illustrates the shift from traditional conceptions to realpolitik considerations.
Transformation and Total War
Under State appropriation, the war machine's focus often transitions from a complementary role with war to one where war becomes the primary goal.
In total war, civilian resources and lives become integrated within the military effort, demanding a radical redefinition of societal roles.
Tensions rise when war supersedes state intentions, leading to models such as fascism, where war becomes self-sustaining.
The Legacy of the War Machine
The war machine exhibits a dual nature:
As a destructive force, it often conflicts with the nomadic way of life.
As a creative entity, it fosters new social relations and possibilities for interaction.
This symbiotic relationship between nomadic cultures and States reveals nuanced dynamics that echo through history: nomads often assimilate into State structures as war machines adapt according to changing circumstances and demands.
Deleuze & Guattari - Nomadology - CH2
Axiom II: The War Machine
The concept of the war machine is distinct from the traditional State apparatus and can be traced back to ancient nomadic societies. The war machine encompasses three fundamental aspects:
Three Aspects of the War Machine
Spatiogeographic Aspect: Nomads inhabit vast territories defined not just by fixed locations but by routes or customary paths that enable their mobility and access to resources.
Arithmetic or Algebraic Aspect: The organization of nomadic groups is conducted through quantitative measures, which may include the size of the group, logistical capabilities, and resource allocation.
Affective Aspect: This involves the emotions and instincts that underlie and drive the nomadic lifestyle, influencing their social structures and interactions.
Nomadic Existence and Territory
Nomadic communities define their territories not by stationary points but by paths of movement connecting vital resources like water and dwellings.
Relays vs. Fixed Points: In a nomadic lifestyle, certain points serve as relays rather than fixed territorial markers, contrasting with the rigid points seen in sedentary societies.
Nomadic vs. Migrant: Unlike migrants, who tend to move from one fixed point to another, nomads perceive their journey as continuous, seeing each halting point as part of a larger relational journey.
Space, Movement, and Territory
The nature of space occupied by nomadic communities showcases distinct characteristics:
Sedentary Space: Often striated, comprising walls, enclosures, and regulated interactions, leading to a structured and ordered social fabric.
Nomadic Space: Characterized as smooth, it allows for fluidity and adaptability in response to environmental changes, such as terrain shifts due to climate change or the encroachment of deserts.
Distinction between Speed and Movement
Speed: Represented as an intensive quality where a particular state of being fills a given space - often linked to the availability of resources or manpower.
Movement: Considered an extensive quality, which is relative and connects various points along a nomadic trajectory.
Deterritorialization and Reterritorialization
Nomadic existence facilitates a unique form of interaction with land characterized by:
Deterritorialization: This involves the establishment of fluid relationships with the land, adapting to new environments and redistributing social structures.
Reterritorialization: Occurs when nomads establish new connections with previously occupied lands, ultimately reshaping them into adaptable territories that align with nomadic practices.
Nomadism vs. State Formation
The fundamental distinctions between nomadic organization and State structures emerge as follows:
Flexible vs. Rigid Organization: Nomadic societies operate on complex interactions rather than definitive structures; this allows them to thrive in diverse environments without the need for a centralized authority.
Resistance to Striation: Nomads inherently resist the striation imposed by State mechanisms, embracing mobility as a core element of their existence. Their methods of warfare symbolize this movement, continually challenging geopolitical boundaries and traditional controls.
The Role of Numbers in War Machines
Nomadic existence necessarily involves numerical organization in warfare. Numbers are utilized beyond mere quantitative measures to include qualitative elements such as strategy or troop composition:
Historical Roots: This numerical system reflects the missteps taken from pastoral migrations, requiring coordination and sharing of information among nomadic tribes for effective military organization.
Weapons and Tools
The distinction between weapons and tools in nomadic cultures is often blurred, as they can serve multiple purposes depending on context:
Interconnection of Action and Emotion: Weapons may represent extensions of emotional states, thereby intertwining the act of war with underlying feelings of the nomads.
The Metallurgical Connection
Metallurgy emerges as a crucial component in the nomadic organizational structure, indicating both social complexity and innovation:
Role of Artisans: Metallurgists within nomadic communities assume critical roles, enhancing the mobility by providing advanced tools and weaponry while reflecting the socio-economic innovations of nomadic life.
Producers and Disseminators: Nomads are not only consumers of metal but also play a vital role in its production and dissemination, influencing both their cultures and those of sedentary societies.Deleuze & Guattari - Nomadology - CH1
Nomadology: The War Machine
Author and Publication
Authors: Gilles Deleuze, Felix Guattari
Originally appeared in: A Thousand Plateaus
Translated by: Brian Massumi
Published by: Wormwood Distribution, Seattle, WA, 2010
Key Propositions
Axiom I
The war machine is defined as a structure that exists outside the State apparatus, indicating a fundamental difference in the nature of warfare and power.
Proposition I
This exteriority is articulated through various cultural phenomena: mythology, epic narratives, dramatic representations, and games. These serve as mediums that express the war machine's essence and operational dynamics in societal contexts.
Political sovereignty is represented through two key figures:
Magician-king (Rex, raj): symbolizes magical powers and the charismatic authority that captivate and terrify social groups.
Jurist-priest (flamen, Brahman): embodies legal authority and the structure of governance that maintains societal order.
These dual roles, although contrasting, function together to present a complementary binary that represents a sovereign unity:
Magician-king: Often depicted as obscure, violent, quick, and fearsome, embodying the unpredictability and chaos of power.
Jurist-priest: Characterized by clarity, calmness, weightiness, and regulation, establishing rules and norms within the polity.
The Nature of the War Machine
War is conceptualized as existing beyond the confines of State apparatus, a significant departure from traditional views that associated violence strictly with State authority:
State violence can manifest through police enforcement or immediate capture, circumventing the necessity for warfare.
The integration of war into State operations occurs legally through the army, suggesting a normalization of violence as a function of governance.
The war machine emerges as a chaotic force outside of State regulation, with figures like Indra symbolizing its multiplicity and resistance to fixed structures.
Justice from the perspective of the war machine may be perceived as cruel; however, it carries an undercurrent of compassion, urging alternative relationships with power, gender, and culture.
It operates beyond binary oppositions, promoting a becoming that resists hierarchical arrangements, allowing for fluidity in social organization.
War Machine vs. State Apparatus: An Analogy in Games
Chess: A Game of State
Features fixed pieces with defined roles (knight, bishop) and structured battlefields, embodying a regulated approach to war.
Reflects a model of dominance and control inherent to State power structures.
Go: A Nomadic Game
Consists of flexible pieces which function collectively, permitting innovative strategies devoid of rigid roles and hierarchies.
Represents war that emphasizes adaptability and territorial contestation, showcasing a more fluid approach to conflict.
Both games illustrate contrasting paradigms:
Chess embodies striated space with fixed entities aiming for dominance.
Go operates within smooth space, emphasizing continuous movement and the dynamic interplay of strategies.
Historical Analysis of War and Politics
Analyzing historical myths and narratives reveals the complex relations between State power and warfare.
Example: The myth of Nkongolo and Mbidi signifies the traditional State's disruption by external military forces (notably Mbidi's army).
Clastres' Perspective asserts that primitive societies employed various mechanisms to resist the establishment of centralized State power, suggesting that war plays a critical role in maintaining social order rather than contributing to State development.
The Role of War in Society
In primitive societies, war serves as a mechanism that preserves group identities and segmentarity, acting as a barrier against State formation.
Clastres theorizes that:
War does not catalyze the development of a State; instead, it forms an integral aspect of a social state that actively opposes the establishment of hierarchical governance.
Mechanisms inherent in warfare delineate and constrain social exchanges, preventing the emergence of powerful centralized authorities.
Conclusion
Deleuze and Guattari contend that an understanding of the war machine as a framework outside State constraints can unveil new modes of sovereignty and power relations.
Nomadic thought emphasizes the importance of movement, transformation, and the necessity of creating spaces for fluid identities that defy traditional structures of power and dominance.
Deleuze - CH12 - A Thousand Plateaus - Treatise on Nomadology
Treatise on Nomadology - The War Machine
Key Concepts and Theories
The war machine exists outside of State apparatus, with mythology, epic tales, drama, and games being the first sources to discuss it. Political sovereignty operates through two archetypes: the Magician-king (Rex or Raj) and the Jurist-priest (Flamen or Brahman), which are antithetical yet complementary, forming a dual sovereignty critical for governance. In the context of mythological roots, Georges Dumezil's study refers to key Indo-European figures, highlighting that political powers often include opposing pairs such as clear/obscure and violent/calm. Importantly, war is not confined within a state and can exist independently through various means, leading to the distinction between police and warriors. As a phenomenon, the war machine predates State regulation and law.
The nature of the war machine represents a multiplicity that is capable of transformation and fluidity, contrasting with the fixed and regulated nature of State power. This is exemplified through figures like Indra, who undermine State sovereignty and build relationships with women and animals, promoting a mode of becoming that surpasses dualistic definitions.
In a comparative analysis, the games of chess and Go highlight different aspects of governance and war. Chess symbolizes State governance with its codified pieces and definitive structure, while Go embodies war’s fluidity, with pieces that rely on strategic situational placement and embrace complexity without direct confrontation.
Implications of War Machines and State Norms
States typically view their military institutions jealously, appropriating war machines while struggling to exert control over them. This creates a tension in which the warrior must navigate between individual valor and the demands of the State. Historical examples demonstrate this tension, such as the integration of nomads into empires by figures like Attila and Genghis Khan.
Sociopolitical Structures of Nomadic Societies
Pierre Clastres argues that primitive societies intentionally resist the emergence of State structures. Warfare functions to disperse and segment groups, preventing potential states from forming and maintaining the independence of these societies. Rather than creating a state, warfare challenges the hierarchies of centralized governance. In the nomadic context, metallurgists and artisans play essential roles, contributing to metallurgy and crafting tools and weapons vital for warfare. Their metalwork reflects shared cultural expressions and opposes sedentary traditions.
Historical Context and Global Interactions
During the Iron Age, nomads significantly influenced military technologies and cultural exchanges, as innovations in metallurgy impacted tactical warfare across cultures. The integration of these nomadic technological practices into sedentary societies is evident in mutual borrowings and adaptations resulting from various cultural interactions.
Conclusion and Forward-Looking Statements
The uncertainty of modern warfare often mirrors historical dynamics between nomadic entities and the state. The emergence of unnamed enemies continues to reflect ongoing nomadic tensions against state authority. Consequently, political frameworks and forms are evolving from these historical tensions, redefining both war and society in a contemporary context.
Understanding the Body without Organs
The characteristics of a BwO are dynamic; it is not a fixed notion but a continuous practice where individuals navigate the BwO like travelers seeking their place within this evolving landscape. There exists a declared war against the traditional organ system, as perceived by Artaud, with the BwO emerging when the body reaches a saturation point with organs, accompanied by a desire to transcend them. Examples of diverse bodies include hypochondriac, paranoid, schizo, drugged, and masochist bodies, each described with distinct characteristics reflecting their relationship with the BwO.
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